Before ChatGPT could write essays, explain tax code, or summarize earnings reports, it had to master something far simpler but no less profound: probability. While headlines may credit “artificial ...

"Yes or no: was there once life on Mars?" I can't say. "What about intelligent life?"' That seems most unlikely, but again, I can't really say. The simple yes-or-no framework has no place for shadings ...

How does one model a simple cell-signaling pathway? Consider a simple example consisting of a stimulant, an extracellular signal, an inhibitor of the signal, a G protein–coupled receptor, a G protein ...

Life is uncertain. None of us know what is going to happen. We know little of what has happened in the past or is happening now outside our immediate experience. Uncertainty has been called the ...